Chapter 2：The Kowtow Question and the Opium War

The story of Qing expansion in “inner Asia” under a series of exceptionally able ?Emperors ?is ?related ?in ?rich ?detail ?in ?Peter ?Perdue, ?China ?Marches West：?The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia ?(Cambridge：Belknap Press, 2005).

?See ?J. ?L. ?Cranmer-Byng, ?ed., ?An ?Embassy ?to ?China：?Being ?the ?journal kept ?by ?Lord ?Macartney ?during ?his ?embassy ?to ?the ?Emperor ?Ch'ien-lung, ?1793–1794 ?(London：?Longmans, ?Green, ?1962), ?Introduction, ?7–9 ?(citing ?the ?Collected Statutes of the Qing dynasty).

?“Lord ?Macartney's ?Commission ?from ?Henry ?Dundas” ?(September ?8,?1792), ?in ?Pei-kai ?Cheng, ?Michael ?Lestz, ?and ?Jonathan ?Spence, ?eds., ?The ?Search for ?Modern ?China：A ?Documentary ?Collection ?(New York：W. W. ?Norton, ?1999), 93–96.

Ibid., 95.

Macartney's Journal, in An Embassy to China, 87–88.

Ibid., 84–85.

Alain ?Peyrefitte, ?The ?Immobile ?Empire ?(New York：Alfred A. ?Knopf, 1992), 508.

Macartney's Journal, in An Embassy to China, 105.

Ibid., 90.

Ibid., 123.

Ibid.

See Chapter 1, “The Singularity of China”.

Macartney's Journal, in An Embassy to China , 137.

?Qianlong's ?First ?Edict ?to ?King ?George ?III ?(September ?1793), ?in ?Cheng, Lestz, and Spence, eds., ?The Search for Modern China：A Documentary Collection, 104–6.

Qianlong's Second Edict to King George III (September 1793), in Cheng, Lestz, and Spence, eds., ?The Search for Modern China：A Documentary Collection, 109.

Macartney's Journal, in ?An Embassy to China , 170.

?Angus Maddison, The World Economy：A Millennial Perspective (Paris：Organisation ?for ?Economic ?Cooperation ?and ?Development, ?2006), Appendix ?B, 261, Table B–18, “ World, 20 Countries and Regional Totals, 0–1998 A.D.”

?See ?Jonathan ?Spence, The ?Search ?for ?Modern ?China ? (New York：?W. W. ?Norton, ?1999), ?149–50; ?Peyrefitte, The ?Immobile ?Empire, ?509–11; ?Dennis Bloodworth and Ching Ping Bloodworth, The Chinese Machiavelli：3000 Years of Chinese Statecraft (New York：Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1976), 280.

Peter Ward Fay, The Opium War, 1840–1842 (Chapel Hill：University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 68.

Peyrefitte, ?The Immobile Empire , xxii.

“Lin Tse-hsü's Moral Advice to Queen Victoria, 1839,” in Ssu-yü Teng and John K. Fairbank, eds., China's Response to the West：A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923 (Cambridge：Harvard University Press, 1979), 26.

Ibid., 26–27.

Ibid., 25–26.

?“Lord ?Palmerston ?to ?the ?Minister ?of ?the ?Emperor ?of ?China” ?(London, February ?20, ?1840), ?as ?reprinted ?in ?Hosea ?Ballou ?Morse, ?The ?International Relations of the Chinese Empire, vol. 1, The Period of Conflict, 1834–1860, part 2 (London：Longmans, Green, 1910), 621–24.

Ibid., 625.

?Memorial ?to ?the ?Emperor, ?as ?translated ?and ?excerpted ?in ?Franz Schurmann ?and ?Orville ?Schell, ?eds., ?Imperial ?China：?The ?Decline ?of ?the ?Last Dynasty ?and ?the ?Origins ?of ?Modern ?China, ?the ?18th ?and ?19th ?Centuries ?(New York：Vintage, 1967), 146–47.

?E. ?Backhouse ?and ?J. ?O. ?P. ?Bland, ?Annals ?and ?Memoirs ?of ?the ?Court ?of Peking ?(Boston：Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 396.

Tsiang Ting-fu, ?Chung-kuo chin tai shih [ China's Modern History ] (Hong Kong：?Li-ta ?Publishers, ?1955), ?as ?translated ?and ?excerpted ?in ?Schurmann ?and Schell, eds., ?Imperial China , 139.

Ibid., 139–40.

Maurice Collis, Foreign Mud：Being an Account of the Opium Imbroglio at ?Canton ?in ?the ?1830s ?and ?the Anglo-Chinese ?War ?That ?Followed ?(New York：New Directions, 1946), 297.

See Teng and Fairbank, eds., China's Response to the West, 27–29.

Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, The Rise of Modern China , 6th ed. (Oxford：Oxford University Press, 2000), 187–88.

Spence, ?The Search for Modern China, 158.

?John ?King ?Fairbank, ?Trade ?and ?Diplomacy ?on ?the ?China ?Coast：?The Opening ?of ?the ?Treaty ?Ports, ?1842–1854 ?(Stanford：?Stanford ?University ?Press, 1969), 109–12.

“Ch'i-ying's Method for Handling the Barbarians, 1844,” as translated inTeng and Fairbank, eds., China's Response to the West, 38–39.

?Ibid., ?38. ?See ?also ?Hsü, The ?Rise ?of ?Modern ?China , ?208–9. A ?copy of ?this ?memorial ?was ?discovered ?years ?later ?in ?the ?British ?capture ?of ?an ?official residence ?in ?Guangzhou. ?Disgraced ?by ?its ?revelation ?during ?an ?1858 ?negotiation with British representatives, Qiying fled. For fleeing an official negotiation without authorization, ?Qiying ?was ?sentenced ?to ?death. ?Deference ?to ?his ?elite ?stature ?was made, and he was “permitted” to perform the deed himself with a silken bowstring.

Meadows, ?Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China, in Schurmann and Schell, eds., Imperial China, 148–49.

?See ?Morse, ?The ?International ?Relations ?of ?the ?Chinese ?Empire, ?vol. ?1, part 2, 632–36.

?See ?ibid., ?part ?1, ?309–10; ?Qianlong's ?Second ?Edict ?to ?King ?George ?III, in ?Cheng, ?Lestz, ?and ?Spence, ?The ?Search ?for ?Modern ?China：?A ?Documentary Collection, 109.