T'ANG　LOVE　STORIES

Ahave　undertaken　to　speak　to　you　this　evening　about　the　love　stories　of　the　T'ang　Dynasty,but　first　I　should　like　to　say　a　few　words　about　the　place　of　fiction　in　Chinese　literature　and　the　development　of　story　writing.It　has　often　been　said　that　novel　and　drama　are　of　no　importance　to　the　student　of　Chinese　literature.There　is　an　element　of　truth　in　this　statement.To　a　European　a　literature　without　novels　and　without　drama　seems　as　dull　and　unattractive　as　a　moving　picture　without　scenes　of　kissing　and　fighting.　But　it　is　unfair　to　suggest　that　the　Chinese　are　destitute　of　all　sense　of　appreciation　of　the　beauty　of　drama　and　romance，without　taking　the　trouble　to　discover　the　real　reason　that　leads　them　to　an　idea　of　literature　so　immensely　different　from　that　of　the　West.

The　generic　term　used　in　Chinese　to　include　both　stories　and　novels　is　hsiao　shuo　（小说）and　it　is　employed　by　Chuang　Tzu（庄子）the　famous　philosopher　of　the　Chou　dynasty.By　hsiao　shuo　（小说）Chuang　Tzu（庄子）　really　meant“common　language”　a　term　which　has　no　specific　connection　with　stories　or　novels，though　later　ages　abopted　these　two　words　to　designate　them.The　earliest　explanation　of　the　term　is　given　by　Pan　Ku（班固）in　his　ingenious　work，the　Han　History　.He　says：“The　first　story-writers　were　probably　the　lesser　officials　of　olden　times.They　collected　the　stories　which　were　related　in　one　place　and　another.　Accordingly，　these　stories　are　generally　just　the　gossip　and　reminiscences　of　the　man　in　the　street.　Superior　men　will　not　trouble　to　make　them，yet　they　will　not　interfere　with　those　who　do　make　them，for　if　there　is　anything　well　worthy　of　notice，it　is　the　revelation　of　the　opinions　of　the　lower　orders.”

Pan　Ku’s　idea　of　the　purpose　of　a　story　is　clear.Obviously　he　intends　to　say　that　the　object　of　a　historian，when　he　gives　a　list　of　stories　as　his　history，is　not　a　literary　one；but　he　feels　that　something　in　them　may　be　useful　for　the　purposes　of　history，—an　example，in　fact，of　the　public　sentiment　of　the　time.So，from　Han　onward，nearly　every　history　does　give　a　list　of　the　stories　extant.

In　his　introduction　to　the　Imperial　Collection　of　Chinese　History　and　Literature，Chi　Yun（纪昀）says：“From　the　T’ang　period　onwards，we　find　numerous　story　writers.Among　them　are　many　who　indulge　in　mystic　and　fantastic　stories，without　a　word　of　truth　in　them，thus　inclining　their　readers　to　a　perverted　mode　of　life.But　there　are　some　whose　works　may　be　considered　a　real　source　of　knowledge.Hence，as　it　was　the　custom　of　our　forefathers　to　collect　books　widely　and　impartially，so　we　should　not　fail　to　take　these　into　consideration，simply　because　they　are　ill-assorted　and　ill-composed.”

All　the　historians　form　Han　to　Ch’　ing　were　evidently　agreed　upon　this　point；they　considered　that　stories　must　be　taken　into　account　in　the　making　of　history.It　is　equally　clear　that　they　had　no　interest　in　the　literary　value　of　the　story.

Now　let　us　turn　our　attention　to　the　idea　of　literature　in　the　mind　of　the　professional　writer.If　we　ask　an　old　type　of　Chinese　scholar　what　he　thinds　about　it，　he　will　answer　without　the　slightest　hesitation，“Literature　is　the　vehicle　of　the　Tao.”We　cannot　now　enter　upon　a　discussion　of　the　meaning　of　the　word　“Tao”，but　for　the　time　being　will　translate　it　as　“Principle.”Han　Yu（韩愈），the　most　celebrated　Writer　of　the　T’ang　period，says：“The　purpose　of　study　is　to　seek　the　Principle，the　purpose　of　literature　to　explain　it.”Liu　Tsung　Yuan（柳宗元），whose　reputation　is　hardly　less　than　that　of　Han　Yu（韩愈），says：“Literature　is　to　bring　out　the　Principle”.Thousands　of　much　quotations　could　be　made.The　title　of　the　first　chapter　of　the　Wen　Hsin　Tiao　Lung　（文心雕龙），a　book　indispensable　to　the　student　of　Chinese　literature.is　“The　Meaning　of　Tao”though　its　subject　is　really　the　meaning　of　literature.Yet　if　we　had　patience　enough　to　go　through　this　book　from　beginning　to　end，we　should　find　no　mention　of　either　novel　or　story，though　its　avowed　purpose　is　to　classity　the　styles，constructions　and　origins　of　literature.Tao　is　the　keystone　of　Chinese　philosophy.Therefore　it　must　be　treated　seriously　and　respectfully.Literature　must　be　discreet　and　austere，since　it　is　the　instrument　whereby　the　sacred　Principle　is　carried.So　literature　is　rather　a　revelation　or　a　reflection　of　goodness　and　virtue　than　a　work　of　beauty　or　of　art.The　deficiencies　of　the　Chinese　story　are　a　natural　result　of　this　pre-eminent　conception　of　Tao.Whether　this　is　absurd　or　not，you　must　judge　for　yourselves.

We　must　bear　this　idea　in　mind　if　we　are　to　criticize　fairly　the　T’ang　stories　which　form　the　subject　of　my　lecture.From　the　point　of　view　of　composition　and　plot　they　are　far　from　perfect，for　their　writers　had　no　idea　of　being　professional　novelists，and　they　did　not　regard　the　writing　of　stories　as　a　serious　occupation.When　we　do　discover　in　them　delightful　ideas　and　charming　expressions，we　can　only　the　more　admire　the　genius　of　writers　who　could　produce　such　exquisite　stories　without　the　expenditure　of　much　care　or　labour.

We　come　now　to　the　development　of　the　story　in　China.Although　stories　are　considered　of　little　importance　from　the　literary　point　of　view，　if　we　examine　and　compare　them，　a　progressive　development　may　be　observed.　In　the　Han　History　，　only　fifteen　stories　are　mentioned，　and　none　of　them　have　survived　to　our　day.　In　the　Sui　History　the　number　has　increased　to　217,and　most　of　these　are　still　extant.　This　may　be　an　indication　of　the　growth　of　story　writing　in　spite　of　the　orthodox　idea　of　literature.

For　the　sake　of　brevity　and　clearness，　we　may　classify　Chinese　stories　in　three　categories，　pre-Han，　Han　to　T’ang，　and　post　T’ang.The　pre-Han　stories　are　simply　illustrations　inserted　in　their　works　by　historical　or　philosophical　writers.They　generally　take　the　form　of　fables　or　allegories　employed　to　illustrate　some　definite　point.　The　writings　of　Chuang　Tzu，　for　example，are　full　of　such　stories.The　writing　of　stories　independently　of　philosophy　begins　with　the　Han　dynasty，and　we　may　therefore　accept　Han　as　the　first　epoch　in　the　history　of　the　story.　But　the　Han　stories　were　still　concerned　with　fairies　and　magic　and　it　is　not　until　we　arrive　at　T’ang　that　we　find　the　events　of　everyday　life　regarded　as　a　suitable　subject.This　was　a　great　advance　from　our　point　of　view，for　we　are　now　provided　with　a　picture　of　the　actual　social　life　of　the　time.

After　T’ang，the　art　of　story　writing　approached　more　nearly　to　maturity　，a　point　most　worthy　of　notice　being　that　the　writers　begin　to　use　colloquial　language.The　description　of　every-day　life　in　the　language　of　everyday　was　a　distinct　improvement.

To　sum　up，before　T’ang　we　have　principally　fairy　stories　in　the　written　language；after　that　dynasty，more　general　subjects　treated　in　the　colloquial　language.　The　T’ang　stories　themselves　stand　in　an　intermediate　position，dealing　with　the　range　of　human　interests，among　which　love　affairs　are　most　prominent.They　surpass　earlier　works　in　the　interest　of　their　subject　matter，and　they　give　inspiration　to　later　ages　by　the　romantic　nature　of　their　themes.Such　is　the　importance　and　the　place　of　the　T’ang　stories　in　the　general　history　of　Chinese　stories.

The　T’ang　love　stories　are　my　particular　subject　this　evening，and　for　the　sake　of　convenience　I　shall　treat　them　from　the　points　of　view　of　ethics，religion，heroism　and　folk-lore.

To　begin　with　the　ethical　aspect.When　we　think　of　love，we　think　naturally　of　marriage.And　when　we　think　of　marriage，we　are　equally　naturally　led　to　the　idea　of　family.Chinese　civilisation　is　based　absolutely　upon　the　complicated　family　system，and　this　system　with　all　its　rigidity　and　strength，will　have　nothing　to　say　to　freeedom　in　marriage.In　other　words，it　completely　divorces　the　idea　of　love　from　the　idea　of　marriage，and　in　the　arrangement　of　a　match，love　is　completely　subordinated　to　other　considerations.The　power　of　the　parents　is　supreme，and　the　arrangement　of　their　children’s　marriages　is　one　of　those　duties，or　rather　businesses，in　which　they　will　brook　no　interference　from　outside　influences，not　even　indeed，from　the　children　themselves.To　refuse　to　marry　a　person　selected　for　one　in　this　way　would　be　a　revolution　not　only　against　the　family　but　against　society　as　a　whole.Perhaps　in　our　study　of　the　T’ang　stories　we　shall　come　to　realise　a　little　of　the　suffering　of　young　men　and　young　women　entailed　by　the　tyranny　of　this　family　system.

We　find　two　books，Pei　Li　Chih　（北里志）and　Chiao　Fang　Chi　（教坊记），which　deal　with　nothing　else　but　the　praises　of　singing　girls，and　their　advantages　from　the　point　of　view　of　young　scholars.The　Pei　Li　Chih　（北里志）says：—The　singing　girls　all　dwell　in　P’ing　K’ang（平康）street.The　candidates　for　public　examinations，as　well　as　those　who　have　passed　the　examination　but　have　not　yet　received　their　appointments　to　a　political　career，can　go　there　for　their　amusement　if　they　are　prepared　to　spend　a　good　deal　of　money.Most　of　the　singing　girls　are　clever　in　conversation　and　can　also　read　and　discuss　books.

The　singing　girls　of　the　T’ang　Period　were，in　fact，highly　educated.When　we　compare　them　with　the　wives　of　the　students，we　are　hardly　surprised　to　see　the　students　frequenting　them，The　wives　were，as　the　Chinese　would　say，“yellow　faced　women”，and　for　the　most　part　uneducated.The　singing　girls　could　read　and　write.There　was　perhaps　the　shadow　of　an　excuse　for　the　students.

Let　us　take，a　story　written　by　Pai　Hsing　Chien　（白行简）a　brother　of　the　celebrated　poet　Pai　Chü　I　（白居易）.　It　is　worthy　of　being　told　in　full，and　I　fear　that　my　necessarily　short　summary　must　fail　to　do　it　justice.

The　Countess　of　Yen　was　once　a　singing　girl　at　Ch’ang　An　（长安）.Her　extraordinary　virtue　and　noble　conduet　were　so　worthy　of　relating　that　the　late　honourable　censor　Pai　Hsing　Chien　（白行简）decided　to　write　her　biography.

Now　the　magistrate　of　Ch’ang　Chou　（常州）whose　name　was　Cheng　（郑）had　a　son　so　bright　and　intelligent　that　he　surpassed　all　his　fellows.When　he　was　setting　out　to　enter　for　the　public　examination，his　father　equipped　him　with　horses，carriages，　clothes　and　money，　sufficient　to　maintain　him　for　two　years　in　the　capital.　When　he　arrived　there，he　took　up　his　abode　in　the　Pu　Cheng　（布政）street.One　day　he　went　down　the　street　of　Tinkling　Jade　and　saw　a　young　maiden　standing　at　the　entrance　of　a　house.　So　fascinating　was　her　manner　that　he　involuntarily　reined　his　horse　and　forgot　to　move　on　again.Indeed　he　deliberately　dropped　his　whip，and　while　his　servant　picked　it　up，he　took　the　opportunity　to　gaze　a　little　longer　at　the　girl.She　looked　at　him　too，and　warm　feelings　filled　both　their　hearts.But　he　had　not　the　courage　to　address　her　and　finally，with　great　reluctance，went　his　way.one　of　his　friends　later　told　him　that　was　a　singing　girl　of　considerable　wealth.So　he　dressed　himself　in　his　best　clothes　and　went　at　once　to　visit　her.

To　begin　with，he　told　the　mother　that　he　would　like　to　take　an　apartment　in　her　house.When　the　girl　herself　came，the　presence　of　her　starry　eyes，white　arms　and　her　charming　manner　brought　the　young　man　to　such　a　state　that　he　dared　no　longer　lift　his　eyes　to　look　at　her.It　never　occured　to　him　that　it　was　time　to　go，and　he　stayed　so　long　that　at　last　the　night　watch　was　heard.　The　old　woman　then　asked　him　where　he　lived，and　he　told　her　“far　from　the　city”in　the　hope　that　she　would　invite　him　to　spend　the　night.But　all　she　said　was　that　it　was　late　and　he　had　better　hurry　home　so　as　to　avoid　breaking　the　law.　Then　he　said：“I　have　not　a　single　relative　or　friend　in　the　city.What　can　Ido？”Then，to　his　delight，the　young　girl　suggested　that　as　he　was　about　to　become　their　lodger　he　might　as　well　stay　there.He　watched　carefully　to　see　what　the　old　woman　would　say　to　this，but　she　only　murmured　“Well，Well.”

The　next　day　he　moved　all　his　belongings　to　her　house.“Ever　since　I　First　saw　you，”he　told　the　girl，“I　have　been　unable　to　think　of　anything　but　you，whether　sleeping　or　eating.”“It　was　the　same　with　me”she　answered.When　the　mother　came　in　and　found　them　talking，she　asked　what　was　the　matter　and　they　told　her.All　she　said　was　“Desire　always　exists　between　man　and　woman.When　they　love，parents’　commands　count　for　nothing.　My　little　daughter　is　very　ugly　and　I　can’t　think　you　would　marry　her.”But　he　only　knelt　down　and　said　“I　am　ready　to　be　your　slave.”

After　this，he　settled　there　and　forgot　all　about　his　examination.Gradually　his　purse　was　drained　and　he　had　to　sell　his　horses　and　other　possessions.The　old　woman　wearied　of　him，and　finally　devised　a　trick　to　get　rid　of　him.Nothing　remained　to　him　but　to　become　a　beggar.One　day　he　was　recognised　by　his　father　who　happened　to　be　on　duty　in　the　capital，and　by　him　was　beaten　nearly　to　death.Happily　he　was　rescued　by　his　fellow　beggars，and　continued　to　beg　on　the　streets.One　night　when　it　was　snowing　he　cried　for　food　so　pitifully　that　none　could　bear　to　hear.His　loved　one　in　her　chamber，heard　him.She　said　to　her　maid：“This　must　be　Cheng（郑），I　recognise　his　voice.”　Quickly　she　went　out　but　found　him　so　thin　and　dirty　that　it　was　hard　to　realise　he　was　a　man.When　she　spoke　to　him，he　was　so　choked　by　shame　that　he　could　not　answer；he　only　nodded　his　head　and　fell　in　a　faint.She　put　her　embroidered　cloak　around　him　and　carried　him　to　her　room.

The　mother　was　very　angry　and　wished　to　turn　him　away，but　the　girl　said：“He　is　really　a　nobleman　and　has　spent　all　his　money　and　possessions　in　our　house.You　got　rid　of　him　by　a　trick　and　have　brought　him　to　this　pass.I　will　give　you　enough　money　to　keep　you　in　food　and　clothing　for　twenty　years　and　I　will　go　with　him.”The　old　woman　gave　way　and　the　youth　was　nursed　with　every　care.When　he　had　recovered　she　urged　him　to　resume　his　studies，and　when　he　wrote　or　read　far　into　the　night，she　would　not　go　to　bed　until　he　had　finished　his　work.So　after　three　years　of　hard　work，he　passed　his　examination　well　and　was　appointed　military　adviser　in　Ch’eng　Tu（成都）.　When　he　was　about　to　leave　for　his　appointment，the　girl　said　to　him，“Now　that　I　have　restored　you　to　health　I　am　content.Now　you　must　marry　a　maiden　of　high　degree，and　I　will　look　after　my　old　mother　here.”　But　he　sobbed　and　answered，“If　you　desert　me，I　shall　kill　myself.”Finally　she　agreed　to　go　with　him　as　far　as　Chien　Men　（剑门）.

There　by　chance，he　met　his　father，who　had　been　appointed　governor　of　the　district.They　were　reconciled　and　he　told　his　father　all　about　the　girl.So　touched　was　the　father　by　the　story　that　he　provided　everything　for　their　wedding　and　they　were　now　formally　married.

I　am　sorry　that　for　the　sake　of　brevity　I　have　had　to　sacrifice　so　much　of　the　beauty　of　this　story.It　is　full　of　interest　from　several　points　of　view.In　the　first　place　it　is　a　daring　attack　on　the　established　family　system.Again　it　is　written　in　the　serious　biograghical　form　not　usually　adopted　except　for　people　of　nobility，and　this　was　but　a　singing　girl.The　author　makes　it　clear　that　love　between　the　sexes　is　natural　and　cannot　be　defeated　by　a　parent’s　orders.He　contrasts　the　brutality　of　the　father　with　the　girl’s　devotion　to　her　lover，and　the　difference　between　paternal　authority　and　true　love　could　not　be　more　clearly　depicted.

Such　stories，however　sincere　they　may　have　been，　were　alwavs　regarded　as　dangerous.The　story　of　Hui　Chen　Chi　（会真记）may　serve　as　an　example　of　the　orthodox　view.Unfortunately.　I　must　summarize　it　considerably.

A　certain　Chang　entered　upon　a　liaison　with　his　cousin　Ying　Ying.She　was　not　only　incomparably　beautiful　but　a　genius　in　literature　and　music.When　Chang　left　her　she　wrote　him　a　beautiful　and　pathetic　letter.“Since　last　autumn，”She　wrote，“I　have　been　filled　with　melancholy.With　the　crowd　I　had　perforce　to　smile　and　talk，but　in　the　loneliness　of　my　room，I　have　never　ceased　to　shed　tears.And　in　my　dreams　I　have　often　told　you　of　my　sorrows，though　when　I　woke，alas，you　were　far　far　away　from　me.I　could　not　help　giving　my　love　to　you，though　indeed　I　have　often　felt　ashamed　of　my　lack　of　self-control.If　you　should　persevere　in　this　our　love　I　shall　feel　that　the　day　of　my　death　is　but　the　beginning　of　life.Yet，if　you　now　decide　that　our　association　is　a　thing　of　shame，and　go　back　upon　the　oath　we　pledged.I　can　only　remember　your　past　kindnesses，and　forgive　your　breaking　of　the　bond　of　love，I　am　sending　you　a　jade　ring　which　I　have　worn　ever　since　I　was　a　child.Jade　is　smooth　and　unalterable，and　the　ring　is　a　sign　of　sternity.Such　is　the　symbol　of　our　love.Farewell,the　wind　of　spring　is　keen，take　care　of　yourself　and　do　not　worry　about　me.”

Chang　did　not　return　to　her，but　took　a　wife　elsewhere.He　said　to　his　friends：“There　is　a　danger　in　all　these　unusual　girls.Either　they　ruin　themselves，or　they　ruin　others　by　their　beauty.Many　kings　have　met　their　ruin　at　the　hand　of　some　beautiful　woman.I　am　not　a　king，so　how　can　I　do　anything　but　give　her　up.”And　those　who　heard　him　were　filled　with　admiration，as　for　one　who　was　about　to　amend　his　evil　past.

The　language　of　this　story　is，perhaps，the　most　beautiful　of　all　the　T’ang　stories.　It　is，we　are　told，the　confession　of　a　famous　scholar　who　loved　a　girl　and　then　was　sorry　and　gave　her　up.Both　man　and　girl　in　this　story　are　quite　intelligent；they　both　see　clearly　at　the　beginning　of　their　association　what　is　likely　to　happen.He　falls　desperately　in　love　and　is　regardless　of　consequences.Then，when　he　has　attained　his　end，he　sobers　down，and　begins　to　wonder　whether　he　shall　sacrifice　the　girl，or　marry　her　and　become　an　outcast　from　his　family　and　from　society.Society　would　recognise　no　union　as　binding　that　had　not　the　consent　of　the　parents，or　that　had　not　been　brought　about　by　the　services　of　a　gobetween.Chang　had　lived　with　Ying　Ying　without　either　of　these　conditions　being　fulfilled.What　then　shall　he　do？　if　he　wishes　to　save　the　girl，he　must　be　content　to　live　a　life　of　shame　and　be　scorned　by　society.If　he　wishes　to　live　according　to　accepted　standards　of　honour，he　must　abandon　the　girl.And　finallly，he　decides　to　sacrifice　his　loved　one　to　recover　his　standing　in　society.In　other　words，he　gives　up，not　only　his　own　happiness，but　hers，in　a　surrender　to　social　tradition，and　society　applauds　him.

The　girl　too　knows　the　dark　outlook　before　her.She　says　to　him：“If　you　begin　by　leading　me　astray，and　yet　save　me　in　the　end，it　will　be　a　kindness　indeed　extraordinary.But　if　you　possess　me　and　then　desert　me，you　have　every　right　to　do　so，and　I　cannot　blame　you.”She　knows　quite　well　that　society　does　not　permit　the　association　of　young　people　before　marriage.But　society　gives　the　man　a　chance　to　wash　out　the　stain，if　he　is　prepared　to　surrender　the　girl　with　whom　he　has　sinned.For　the　woman　there　is　no　such　opportunity.The　more　intolerable　part　of　the　burden　must　be　hars　to　bear.Chang　will　be　approved　for　his　action，but　there　will　be　none　to　pity　the　poor　girl.

Five　hundred　years　later，a　play　was　based　upon　this　story.The　author　made　Chang　and　Ying　Ying　marry，and　ended　his　play　with　the　words“In　the　hope　that　all　the　lovers　of　the　world　may　be　united　in　a　happy　marriage.”There　was　no　such　hope，unfortunacely，for　poor　Ying　Ying.

It　may　be　asked：why　did　not　the　Chinese　abolish　this　absurd　family　system　and　thus　gain　freedom　of　marriage？In　order　to　answer　this，I　must　discuss　the　religious　aspect　of　the　question.We　cannot　compare　the　religious　spirit　of　the　Chinese　with　that　of　Christians　or　Mohammedans.The　educated　Chinese　treat　religion　rather　as　philosophy　or　moral　principle　than　as　religion　in　the　European　sense.The　uneducated　Chinese　are　steeped　in　every　kind　of　superstition，without　considering　its　origin.Both　classes　have　an　equally　firm　belief　in　fate.And　this　belief　is　apparent　in　the　general　attitude　towards　marriage.If　a　marriage　be　unsatisfactory，not　the　parents　are　to　be　blamed，but　who　can　stand　up　against　omnipotent　Fate？So　the　passive　and　unresisting　obedience　we　observe　is　rather　to　Fate　than　to　tyrannical　and　oppressive　parents.A　man　who　thus　believes　in　Fate　and　at　the　same　time　finds　himself　unhappily　married　will　appreciate　the　impossibility　of　challenging　Fate，and　so　forget　his　pain.He　will　see　the　light　sparkling　in　the　heavens　and　ignore　the　darkness　of　his　unhappy　existence.

Another　story　may　serve　to　illustrate　this　point.

Being　left　an　orphan　while　still　a　child，a　certain　Wei　Ku（韦固）was　anxious　to　marry　and　carry　on　his　family.On　his　way　to　Ch’ing　Ho，he　stayed　at　an　inn　in　the　south　of　the　city　Sung.There　he　met　a　friend　who　wished　to　introduce　him　to　an　exmagistrate　who　had　a　desirable　daughter，and　an　arrangement　was　made　that　the　parties　should　meet　outside　a　temple　the　next　morning.Being　anxious　about　this　marriage　Wei　Ku（韦固）went　to　the　temple　while　the　moon　was　still　shining.Outside　it　he　saw　an　old　man　resting　on　the　steps，leaning　on　a　sack，reading.He　looked　at　the　book，but　the　characters　were　strange　to　him.So　he　said　to　the　old　man，“What　kind　of　book　is　that？　I　am　quite　a　keen　student　and　can　even　read　Sanskrit，but　I　have　never　seen　such　a　book　as　yours.”The　old　man　replied　with　a　smile“It　is　not　a　book　of　this　world；how　can　you　expect　to　read　it？”Again　Wei　Ku（韦固）asked　what　it　was，and　the　old　man　told　him　that　it　was　a　book　of　the　underworld.“If　you　belong　to　the　underworld”，said　Wei　Ku（韦固），“what　are　you　doing　here？”.“The　beings　of　the　underworld　control　all　the　affairs　of　people　in　this　world，so　can　I　avoid　coming　here？”answered　the　old　man.Then　he　explained　that　he　himself　was　particularly　concerned　with　keeping　account　of　all　marriages.This　at　once　interested　Wei　Ku（韦固）and　he　said，　“Can　you　tell　me　whether　I　shall　marry　the　daughter　of　the　exmagistrate　for　whom　I　am　waiting？”“No”，replied　the　old　man，　“At　the　present　time，your　wife　is　three　years　old，and　you　will　marry　her　when　she　is　seventeen.Look　at　this　sack！It　contains　the　red　cords　that　bind　the　feet　of　husbands　to　their　wives.Your　feet　have　already　been　bound　to　hers，and　when　once　this　has　been　done　it　matters　not　whether　people　are　enemies　or　strangers，marry　they　must.”

“Where　is　this　wife　of　mine”asked　Wei　Ku（韦固）then，“I　should　like　to　see　her”，“I　will　show　her　to　you　in　the　market　place”，replied　the　old　man.They　went　together　to　the　market　where　they　saw　an　old　blind　woman　selling　vegetables，whih　a　baby　in　her　arms.The　baby　was　horribly　dirty　and　ugly，but　the　old　man　pointed　to　it　and　said　“There　is　your　wife”.Wei　Ku（韦固）did　not　like　the　look　of　her　at　all，and　asked　if　he　might　kill　her，but　the　old　man　said　that　was　unthinkable　since　she　was　destined　to　a　great　fortune.Then　he　disappeared.

Wei　Ku（韦固）returned　to　his　inn　and　ordered　his　servant　to　go　to　the　market　and　kill　the　child.The　servant　went　to　execute　his　master’s　order，stabbed　the　girl　and　quickly　escaped　from　the　market.Fourteen　years　passed　and.Wei（韦）was　now　an　important　staff　officer.The　governor　of　the　district　in　which　he　was　serving　married　the　young　man　to　his　daughter.The　bride　was　young　and　pretty　and　Wei（韦）was　perfectly　satisfied.But　she　always，even　in　her　bath，wore　a　flowershaped　ornament　between　her　eyebrows，and　never　removed　it.When　her　husband　pressed　her　to　explain　this，she　told　him　that　her　father　had　been　the　governor　of　a　city　called　Sung，and　had　died　while　holding　office　there.He　left　her　with　only　a　small　cottage，and　an　old　nurse　who　sold　vegetables　to　make　a　living，had　brought　her　up.When　she　was　three　years　old，she　said，she　was　attacked　by　a　madman　and　wounded　between　the　eyebrows.As　the　scar　was　still　there，she　covered　it　with　the　ornament.It　was　only　a　few　years　before，that　her　uncle　had　discovered　and　adopted　her.

When　Wei（韦）heard　this，he　asked　if　the　old　nurse　had　been　blind，and　his　wife，admitting　the　fact，asked　how　he　knew.Much　to　her　amazement，the　whole　story　came　out.Later，she　became　the　honoured　lady　of　T’ai　Yuan，of　which　her　son　was　govemor.

So　we　are　shown　that　Fate　is　unalterable.The　old　man　under　the　moon，the　magic　red　cords　and　the　marriage　register，—all　the　essentials　of　a　Chinese　marriage　are　here.Romance　is　a　pretty　toy　of　the　invisible　gods，and　boys　and　girls　must　play　the　parts　assigned　to　them.　To　obey　the　orders　of　one’s　elders　may　seem　at　times　intolerable，but　enjoyment　may　be　secured　by　yielding　obedience　to　the　behests　of　Fate.From　the　peasant　to　the　philosopher　all　appreciate　the　power　of　Destiny　and　attain　to　contentment　in　submissiveness.This　submission　to　Fate　is　one　of　the　fundamental　causes　of　Chinese　peacefulness.A　philosophic　people　views　Fate　as　a　stream　carrying　life　along　wherever　the　living　stream　must　flow，and　the　highest　form　of　enjoyment　is　to　be　had　by　simply　allowing　oneself　to　be　borne　along　by　the　current.From　the　western　point　of　view　it　produces　a　lack　of　initiative　and　boldness，and　may　occasionally　give　rise　to　what　some　have　chosen　to　call　the　cowardice　of　the　Chinese.

We　may　now　consider　another　aspect　of　religious　belief.Taoism　is　undoubtedly　the　most　powerful　and　popular　religion　in　China.It　has　no　definite　dogmatic　system　and　contains　few　intellectual　elements.Magic，omens，charms，geomancy，a　thousand　different　superstitions　are　all　accepted　and　exercised　in　Taoism.　Hence　its　popularity.This　element　of　magic　naturally　appears　in　popular　literature.But　when　we　come　to　deal　with　love　stories　of　this　type，we　must　analyse　them　from　the　religious　point　of　view　as　well　as　the　psychological，for　the　writers　of　such　stories　would　never　write　them　simply　for　the　sake　of　the　love　interest　in　them.It　is　possible　however，that　they　may　have　been　swayed　to　some　extent　by　motives　of　which　they　themselves　were　unconscious.　The　belief　in　transformation　is　common　in　low　types　of　religion，but　why　should　foxes　change　into　lovely　maidens，and　devils　into　handsome　young　men？Why　not　into　horses　or　oxen，which　would　be　much　more　useful？　Unfortunately　fox-maidens　and　handsome　young　men　are　more　satisfying　to　the　imagination.Freedom　in　marriage　is　denied，and　some　mode　of　escape　from　an　intolerable　situation　must　be　found.Our　young　men　are　not　allowed　to　make　friends　with　girls，but　they　may　invite　lovely　foxes　and　handsome　devils　to　enjoy　a　delightful　party　with　them　in　a　world　of　their　own　imagining.There　is　the　further　advantage　of　economy.Singing　girls　are　expensive，far　more　expensive　than　pen　and　ink　with　which　to　write　fairy　tales.

As　an　example　of　this　kind　of　story，I　may　quote　that　of　Chang　Sun　Shao　Tsu（长孙绍祖）.　One　day　he　was　travelling　from　Chen　to　Tsai.In　the　evening　he　heard　a　voice　calling　upon　him　to　halt，and　the　sound　of　a　harp.Going　in　the　direction　from　which　the　voice　seemed　to　come，he　saw　through　a　window　a　young　girl　playing　the　harp　with　great　diligence.He　tried　to　enter　into　conversation　with　her，but　she　only　continued　to　play.At　last　she　smiled　and　murmured　the　words　of　a　song.Thus　encouraged　the　young　man　went　in　to　pay　his　respects，and　found　the　young　lady　very　agreable　and　amiable.The　room　was　filled　with　beautiful　furniture.A　maid　brought　in　a　repast　of　rare　and　delicious　dishes，though　the　girl　apologised　for　its　deficiencies.They　drank　together，and　after　a　few　glasses　she　sang　to　him.He　stayed　the　night　there，and　just　before　dawn　she　wished　him　farewell　with　tears　in　her　eyes，and　offered　him　a　little　box　inlaid　with　gold　as　a　present.“I　fear　we　shall　never　meet　again，”she，　said，“but　you　will　think　of　me　when　you　see　this　box.”He　then　left，but　before　he　had　gone　more　than　a　hundred　paces　he　looked　back　only　to　find　that　the　house　had　changed　into　a　small　tomb.Sadly　he　looked　again　at　the　box：it　was　now　thick　with　dust，for　it　belonged　to　the　dead.

We　come　now　to　an　aspect　of　the　Chinese　attitude　towards　love　affairs　that　I　fear　will　prove　disappointing　to　my　hearers.European　novels　provide　graphic　descriptions，and　American　films　many　lurid　pictures　of　a　hero’s　desperate　adventures　in　his　efforts　to　secure　the　heroine.The　course　of　true　love　does　not　flow　smoothly　，and　the　time　arrives　for　heroic　action.But　what　of　the　Chinese　lover　in　the　like　circumstances？I　think　you　will　see　from　the　example　I　will　now　give　that　he　is　not　exactly　a　worshipper　of　Rudolph　Valentino.

A　certain　Wang　Hsien　K’e（王仙客）had　a　cousin　Liu　Wu　Shuang（刘无双），whose　beauty　was　as　perfect　as　her　mind　was　clever.Wang’s　mother　pleaded　with　the　girl’s　father　that　she　might　be　given　in　marriage　to　her　son.The　father　promised　that　it　should　be　so，but　later　changed　his　mind.Wang,s　mother　died，and　he　himself　again　pleaded　for　the　marriage，but　without　success.He　was　disappointed，but　still　behaved　pleasantly　to　his　uncle　in　the　hope　of　winning　him　over.One　day　the　uncle　came　home　in　a　great　hurry，and　said　to　Wang.“There　has　been　a　revolution　and　the　emperor　has　just　run　away　from　the　palace.If　you　will　help　me　to　escape，you　shall　have　Wu　Shuang　（无双）for　your　wife.”This　made　Wang　both　pleased　and　excited.He　packed　up　his　uncle’s　treasures　and　took　them　to　a　secret　place　where　the　uncle　was　to　join　him　later.It　grew　dark　and　still　the　uncle　did　not　come.Wang　returned　to　the　city，but　found　the　gates　closed.He　asked　the　soldiers　what　had　been　happening　in　the　city　and　was　told　that　the　prime　minister　had　seized　the　throne　and　that　Liu（刘），Wang’s　uncle，had　been　arrested.At　this　Wang　shed　tears　and　hastened　back　to　the　place　where　he　had　hidden　the　treasure，hoping　that　Wu　Shuang　（无双）and　his　aunt　might　still　arrive.

At　midnight　he　heard　the　sound　of　soldiers　searching　about　to　discover　and　punish　any　who　might　have　escaped　from　the　city.So　he　abandoned　his　uncle’s　possessions　and　ran　for　his　life.Three　years　later　he　learned　that　the　trouble　was　over　and　the　capital　restored　to　order.So　he　started　off　to　seek　information　about　his　loved　one.He　found　her　old　servant　Sai　Hung（塞鸿）and　a　maid，who　told　him　that　his　uncle　had　been　executed　and　Wu　Shuang　（无双）taken　into　the　palace　as　a　lady　in　waiting.

Wang　then　took　a　house　and　lived　with　Sai　Hung（塞鸿）and　T’sai　Pin（采萍），but　his　heart　was　overwhelmed　with　sadness，Sai　Hung（塞鸿）urged　him　to　take　a　position　in　the　government　to　give　himself　something　else　to　think　about，and　realising　the　old　servant’s　sincerity，he　did　take　the　post　of　controller　at　a　stage　post　in　Ch’ang　Le　（长乐）.There　a　message　reached　him　one　day　that　thirty　ladies　of　the　court　would　arrive　at　the　post.Wang　wondered　whether　Wu　Shuang（无双）might　not　be　one　of　them，but　the　old　servant　told　him，“There　are　a　thousand　ladies　at　the　court，so　there　is　not　much　chance　of　her　being　among　them.”Wang　however　said：“You　must　go　and　see，and　when　you　serve　them　with　tea，watch　closely　and　do　not　leave　your　place　a　single　moment.If　you　should　find　out　anything，come　back　and　tell　me　at　once.”So　Sai　Hung　（塞鸿）went　off，but　as　all　the　ladies　were　behind　a　curtain，he　could　not　recognise　any　of　them，but　could　only　hear　their　laughing　and　chatting.But　at　midnight，when　he　was　cleaning　the　tea　things，not　daring　to　go　to　sleep，he　suddenly　heard　a　voice“Sai　Hung（塞鸿），Sai　Hung（塞鸿），how　did　you　know　that　I　was　here？”It　was　Wu　Shuang（无双）voice.“My　master　told　me　to　come，”the　old　servant　answered.The　girl　sobbed　and　said：“When　I　have　gone　to-merrow，you　will　find　a　letter　underneath　a　pillow　in　the　north-east　chamber.Give　it　to　your　master.”Then　she　withdrew，but　the　old　servant　heard　a　noise　behind　the　curtain　of　someone　calling：“She　has　fainted，she　has　fainted.Send　for　the　governor　and　a　doctor.”He　decided　that　this　must　be　Wu　Shuang（无双）and　hurried　back　to　his　master　and　told　him　all　that　had　happened.

The　young　man　was　now　anxious　to　see　his　lady　love，and　by　Sai　Hung’s（塞鸿）advice，disguised　himself　as　an　inspector，and　watched　the　carriages　pass.Tears　flowing　down　his　cheeks，he　was　going　sadly　home　when　Sai　Hung（塞鸿）gave　him　the　letter　she　had　left　behind.At　the　end　of　it　she　wrote，“I　have　heard　that　officer　Ku（古）of　Fu　P’ing（富平）is　a　man　with　a　brave　heart.Go　and　ask　him　what　you　shall　do.”Wang　at　once　resigned　his　post　and　went　to　see　the　officer.He　made　friends　with　him　and　gave　him　some　handsome　presents，but　hesitated　to　say　what　it　was　he　really　wanted.A　year　passed　and　finally　Ku　said：“I　am　only　an　old　retired　soldier，quite　unworthy　of　all　the　kindness　you　have　shown　me.I　know　there　is　something　you　wish　me　to　do　for　you，though　you　have　never　told　me　so，If　you　will　only　do　so，I　will　gladly　sacrifice　my　life　to　repay　all　your　kindnesses　to　me.”So　Wang　knelt　down　and　told　him　the　truth.When　Ku　had　heard　the　story，he　said：“It　is　no　easy　matter，but　have　patience　and　I　will　do　my　best.”

Half　a　year　passed，and　one　day　Wang　heard　that　one　of　the　ladies　of　the　court　had　been　executed.Being　told　that　it　was　Wu　Shuang（无双）he　wept，and　said：“I　really　hoped　that　officer　Ku　（古）could　do　something　for　me，but　now　she　is　dead.What　can　I　do？”

But　that　night　he　heard　an　impatient　knocking　at　the　door，and　running　to　open　it，found　Ku　with　a　large　sack　on　his　back.“Here　is　Wu　Shuang（无双），”said　the　officer.“Give　her　some　soup　and　water　and　she　will　be　all　right.”This　he　did　and　the　girl　began　to　revive.Then　Ku　explained　that　he　had　heard　of　a　priest　who　possessed　a　wonderful　drug　which　had　the　power　to　make　a　person　lifeless　for　three　days，but　to　bring　him　to　life　again　on　the　third.He　had，by　a　trick，succeeded　in　getting　this　poison　administered　to　Wu　Shuang　（无双）and　had　then　bribed　the　palace　officials　to　give　him　the‘body.’

“Now，”he　said，“you　must　escape　at　once.I　have　prepared　everything　you　need.”Then　he　drew　his　sword　and　killed　himself.Wang　buried　his　body　and　carried　off　Wu　Shuang（无双）to　the　west　of　Shu　（蜀）where　they　lived　happify　ever　after.

There　are　many　stories　of　this　kind　in　the　T’ang　collection.Lovers　find　themselves　in　some　insoluble　difficulty，and　a　hero　of　extraordinary　spirit　comes　and　rescues　them.They　do　not　fight　for　themselves.This　is　not　so　much　cowardice，as　would　appear　at　the　first　glance，as　conformity　to　tradition.The　Chinese　educational　ideal　was　to　train　the　youth　to　be　a　superior　man，and　this　implies　the　possession　of　a　gentle　manner　and　a　lofty　mind.The　bold　general　is　simply　a　dog，whose　master　is　a　refined，kingly　and　philosophic　individual.In　the　storise　of　heroism，most　of　the　heroes　are　either　honest　slaves，or　simple　minded　but　they　are　not　gentlemen.So　the　heroes　of　Chinese　love　stories　are　seldom　the　lovers　themselves，but　outsiders　who　help　the　lovers　out　of　their　difficulties.

My　last　example　will　illustrate　a　class　of　story　most　worthy　of　notice　on　account　of　the　mythological　material　or　folk-lore　it　contains，Such　stories　explain　themselves.

In　Lin　Ch’ing（临清）there　is　a　river　called　the　River　of　the　Jealous　Woman.Tradition　says：In　the　period　Ta　Shih　（泰始）of　the　Chin　dynasty，a　man　named　Liu　Po　Yu（刘伯玉）had　a　very　jealous　wife　called　Tuan（段）.Once　he　recited　to　her　the　poem　of　the　Lo（洛）River　Goddess，and　said　to　her，“If　only　I　could　get　a　wife　like　her，I　should　be　quite　satisfied.”This　annoyed　his　wife.“How　dare　you　insult　me　by　admiring　the　beauty　of　a　goddess.”she　said　“When　I　am　dead　I　shall　certainly　be　a　goddess　myself.”And　that　very　night　she　threw　herself　in　the　river.Seven　days　later　she　appeared　to　her　husband　in　a　dream.“I　wished　to　be　a　goddess，”she　said，“and　now　my　wish　has　been　gratified.”Liu　（刘）woke　up，and　never　after　could　find　enough　courage　to　cross　the　river.Moreover　the　women　who　wished　to　cross　this　river　in　which　Tuan（段）had　drowned　herself，all　had　to　remove　their　ornaments　and　put　on　shabby　dresses.If　they　did　not，storm　would　descend　upon　the　river.Ugly　women，however，were　able　to　cross　the　river　in　their　best　dresses，with　all　their　paint　and　powder，and　there　was　no　storm　at　all.So　ladies　who　crossed　the　river　without　a　storm　were　very，very　disappointed，for　it　was　clear　they　were　not　beautiful　enough　to　arouse　the　jealousy　of　the　goddess.And　the　ugly　ladies　who　wished　to　be　considered　beautiful　never　failed　to　remove　their　ornaments　and　always　left　their　faces　unpowdered.Hence　the　proverb　originated：“If　you　want　a　beautiful　wife，go　and　stand　on　the　river　bank　and　see　what　happens　when　the　ladies　cross　the　river！”

I　must　now　bring　this　lecture　to　a　close　with　a　very　few　words　on　the　language　used　in　the　T’ang　stories，and　the　infiuence　of　these　stories　upon　the　work　of　later　ages.

The　T’ang　dynasty　is，if　I　may　be　permitted　the　expression，like　a　beautiful　maiden　standing　in　the　mist　of　eastern　civilisation.　In　T’ang　poetry　we　are　given　a　glimpse　of　the　dream　of　beauty　within　her　tender　bosom.In　the　T’ang　love　stories，we　come　nearer　to　real　life.The　writers　of　the　stories　are　famous　poets　and　scholars，and　they　are　therefore　able　to　describe　their　environment　vividly.In　a　few　simple　words，they　can　paint　a　picture　as　beautiful　as　we　can　imagine.The　language　is　indecd　so　beautiful　that　even　if　we　consider　the　plot　thin　and　the　construction　ineffective　the　language　will　stand　for　ever　as　a　shining　light　in　Chinese　literature.

The　T’ang　dynasty　was　undoubtedly　the　romantic　dynasty　of　China.Nearly　all　its　themes　were　adopted　by　the　dramatists　of　Yuan　and　Ming，as　the　framework　upon　which　they　built　their　plays.The　dramas　are　undoubtedly　more　attractive　and　better　from　the　point　of　view　of　composition　than　the　T’ang　stories，but　we　cannot　lose　sight　of　the　fact　that　the　inspiration　came　from　T’ang.

In　order　to　do　justice　to　my　subject，I　should　have　needed　a　much　longer　time　than　I　have　at　my　disposal.I　can　only　hope　to　have　shown　you　that　from　many　points　of　view　the　T’ang　stories　are　not　unworthy　of　attention.