THE　MODERN　CHINESE　NOVEL

Beore　discussing　the　“modern”Chinese　novel，that　is，the　type　written　in　the　vulgate　，or　language　of　the　ordinary　man　on　the　street，perhaps　one　should　remind　one’s　readers　that　in　China　there　have　always　been　two　distinct　languages：the　Wenyan　，or　lirerary　language；and　the　Pai-hua　，or　spoken　one.With　a　few　notable　exceptions，all　literature　in　the　past　has　been　written　in　the　Wen-yan　which，as　far　as　the　common　people　were　concerned，was　practically　a　foreign　language.First　hand　acquaintance　with　all　the　great　literature　of　China，therefore，was　confined　to　the　Literati　，or　scholars，since　the　common　people　could　never　hope　to　master　the　difficult　literary　language.However，as　far　back　as　the　T’ang　and　Sung　Dynasties　（A.D.618-907and　960-1126，respectivedly），one　does　find　novels　written　in　the　Pai-hua　.They　may　go　further　back.So　the　“modern”novel　is　not　so　new，after　all.

Stories　of　The　Three　Kingdoms

Even　as　far　back　as　the　seventh　century，there　were　current　a　number　of　tales　out　of　books，which　were　quite　well　known　to　people　in　general—stories　which　formed　the　subject　matter　of　Annals　or　written　novels，but　which，as　told　to　the　people　by　the　professional　story　tellers，differed　both　as　to　form　and　even　content　from　the　originals　from　which　they　were　taken.During　the　Sung　Dynasty，for　example，one　would　often　see　in　the　streets　or　lanes　of　cities　and　villages　the　professional　story　teller，surrounded　by　a　wide-eyed　audience　listening　with　rapt　attention　to　stories　of　the　heroic　deeds　and　romantic　adventures　of　the　real　or　legendary　figures　out　of　China’s　long　past.Especially　did　the　story　tellers　love　to　recount　tales　concerning　the　colorfui　figures　whose　exploits　formed　the　subject　matter　of　the　San　Kuo　Chih，　or　Annals　of　the　Three　Kingdoms.The　period　covered　in　the　Annals　is　the　third　century　A.D.and　its　stories　are　about　the　men　and　events　of　that　turbulent　era　of　China’s　history.Although　the　San　Kuo　Chih　was　written　in　the　purest　Wen-yan　，the　novel　made　from　the　Annals，the　San　Kuo　Chih　Yen　I　，was　written　in　the　Pai-hua　，or　vulgate，and　it　was　in　this　language，which　the　people　could　understand，that　the　story　tellers　told　of　the　swashuckling　herose　of　this　long　civil　war，which　for　more　than　half　a　century　divided　the　country　into　three　warring　states.The　street　story　teller，by　the　way，has　by　no　means　passed　from　the　scene　in　China，for　one　still　finds　him　throughout　the　country，the　center　of　groups　of　eager　listeners.

Although　the　Three　Kingdom　stories，as　recounted　by　the　professional　story　telles，followed　the　main　outlines　of　the　historical　incidents　of　the　original，each　story　teller　was　apt　to　add　some　purely　imaginary　incidents　of　his　own　invention，and　so，through　the　centuries，the　tales　were　considerably　“embroidered.”The　fact　remains，however，that　the　men　and　events　of　this　troubled　perido　of　China’s　history　were　quite　familiar　to　the　common　people.The　San　Kuo　Chih　Yen　I　first　appeared　in　the　latter　years　of　the　Yuan　Dynasty　（A.D.1206-1368）,and　is　said　to　have　been　written　by　one　Lo　Kuan-chung，but　much　enlarged　and　expanded　versions　of　it　kept　appearing　well　into　the　seventeenth　century.

All　Men　Are　Brothers

In　the　same　way，the　main　incidents　and　characters　of　the　Shui　Hu　Chuan　（translated　into　English　with　the　title　of　“All　Men　Are　Brothers”），were　known　to　the　masses　of　the　Chinese　people.The　story　of　the　Shui　Hu　Chuan　，like　the　San　Kuo　Chih　Yen　I　，　covers　a　period　of　China’s　historywhen　the　reigning　house　was　falling　into　decline　（this　time　it　was　the　Northern　Sung　Dynasty　A.D.960-1126）,and　there　was　the　usual　corruption　in　officialcircles，gross　injustice　of　all　sorts，and　in　fact　all　the　evil　characteristic　of　rottenness　and　decay.It　was　a　time　when　honorable　and　upright　officials　weredriven　from　office　and　fawning　sycophants，bent　on　their　own　advancement，were　put　in　their　places.The　setting　of　the　Shui　Hu　Chuan　，which　is　undoubtedly　based　on　historical　fact，is　the　thirteenth　century，in　a　mountainous　district　of　the　Province　of　Shantung.There　are　108　characters　in　the　book，thirty-six　of　whom　are　major　ones　and　the　other　seventy-two　of　minor　importance.These　108　men，a　number　of　whom　were　former　high　officials，but　all　of　whom　have　eversince　been　regarded　as　“bandits”　in　government　eyes，lived　together　on　a　strategically　located　mountain.They　had　fled　to　this　mountain　fastness　either　from　threatened　danger　from　their　enemies，or　because　they　could　no　longer　toleate　the　social　evils　which“tried　men’　s　souls.”These　men　organized　themselves　into　a　sort　of　Robin　Hood　band，with　very　strict　rulcs　governing　their　conduct，and　from　their　retreat　they　waged　unrelenting　warfare，mostly　in　Central　China，against　those　who　oppressed　the　poor　and　helpless.From　their　retreat，too，they　fought　the　Government　troops，that　were　sent　periodically　to　wipe　them　out.Since　they　fought　against　official　corruption　and　glaring　social　evils，the　“outlaws”，as　theywere　called　by　the　Government，were　regarded　by　the　common　pcople　as　heroes，andthrough　the　years　the　fame　of　their　deeds　spread　far　and　wide，as　the　stories　oftheir　exploits　were　told　and　re-told　from　generation　to　generation.The　heroes　ofthe　Shui　Hu　Chuan　were　undoubtcdly　brave　as　well　as　good　men，andmany　of　them　described　in　the　book　are　actual　hisorical　figures.They　were　men，however，who　had　infinite　pity　for　the　victims　of　oppression　and　a　burning　resentment　against　the　rapacity　of　greedy　officials　and　the　callousness　of　the　rich.They　never　denied　that　they　were　rebels　and　outlaws，nor　even　that　they　were　robbers，but　it　must　be　said，in　extenuation　of　their　activities，that　what　they　took　from　the　rich　they　gave　to　the　poor　who　needed　it.Even　to　this　day，the　region　of　Liang　Shan　p’o，in　Shantung　Province，from　which　this　band　operated，is　known　as　a　robbers’stronghold.

It　was　to　be　expected，of　course，that　even　though　to　the　common　people　of　the　country，the“outlaws”of　the　Shui　Hu　Chuan　were　heroes，the　Government，at　the　time，and　in　fact　ever　since，has　taken　a　somewhat　dim　view　of　their　activities　and　has　always　been　anxious　that　the　people　did　not　glorify　them.From　the　time　the　book　first　appeared，and　up　until　the　end　of　the　Ch’ing　Dynasty，official　orders　have　been　issued　banning　it.As　late　as　1799，severe　punishments　were　threatened　for　those　who　read　the　book　or　sold　it　in　bookshops.

These　two　famous　popular　novels，however，cannot　really　be　said　to　be　the　work　of　any　one　man，since　in　both　cases　they　are　really　a　collection　of　stories　and　legends　that　grew　up　through　the　years　and　were　finally　put　into　book　form，in　much　the　same　way　that　the　writings　of　Homer　wcre　collected　and　finally　made　into　one　single　connected　narrative.

Ming　and　Ch’ing　Dynasty　Novels

In　the　Ming　and　Ch’ing　dynasties　（1368-1644　and　1644-1911，respectively），there　were　also　novels　written　in　the　Paihua　.The　most　outstanding　of　these，in　the　Ming　Dynasty，Was　a　novel　called　Chin　P’ing　Mei　translated　into　English　under　the　title　of　“The　Golden　Lotus，”by　the　Englishman　Clement　Edaerton.This　novel，in　the　opinion　of　the　writer，is　undoubtedly　one　of　the　greatest　ever　to　be　written　in　the　Chinese　language.The　story　centers　around　the　three　characters　whose　names　give　the　title　to　the　novel.These　three　young　women　are　concubines　of　a　very　wealthy　man，and　their　doings，as　well　asthe　doings　of　the　rest　of　the　household　of　which　they　were　membes，form　the　subject　of　the　narrative.Both　the　events　described　in　the　story　and　the　language　used　to　recount　them　have　been　considered　obscene　，and　young　girls　andboys　have　always　been　forbidden　to　read　the　book.Expurgated　editions　of　it　are　still　obtainable　in　China，although　they　are　not　easy　toprocure　.One　is　apt　to　find　a　copy，however，in　a　bookshop　in　Hongkong　or　Shanghai，or　some　other　large　city.Copies　of　the　original　Ming　and　later　Ch’ing　editions，are　very　beautifully　illustrated，but　these　are　extremely　rare　and　in　any　market　would　bring　a　fantastically　high　price.The　story，written　in　the　Shantung　vernacular，is　a　very　serious　piece　of　work　and　contains　writing　ofavery　high　order.In　the　English　translation，oddly　enough，the　so-called　obscene　passages　are　put　into　Latin，in　order,　supposedly.to　make　them　as　unintelligible　as　possible　to　the　average　reader.

The　most　famous　popular　book　of　the　Ch’ing　Dynasty　（A.D.1644-1911），was　the　Hung　Lo　Meng　，or　Dream　of　the　Red　Chamber，which　was　written　in　the　purest　Mandarin，the　official　language　of　Peking；and　the　story，like　that　of　the　other　novels　described　above，was　well　known　to　the　people　generally.Undoubtedly　it　is　the　most　famous　and　popular　of　all　Chinese　novels　written　in　the　vernacular.It　is　a　love　story　with　a　tragic　ending，as　the　heroine　dies　of　a　disease　now　recognized　as　tuberculosis，and　does　not　marry　the　man　she　loves.The　principals　of　the　Hung　Lo　Meng　are　two　young　people，distant　cousins，but　members　of　a　large　well-to-do　Mandarin　bousehold　in　Peking.While　the　tragic　story　of　the　lovers　is　the　main　theme　of　the　book，there　are　many　other　stories　within　the　main　one，some　of　them　also　love　stories.The　novel　is　one　of　very　great　length—a　sort　of　Chinese　Gone　With　the　Wind　—and　contains　lengthy　descriptions　of　the　great　House　itself，its　gardens，pavilions，etc.，aswell　as　of　the　large　number　of　people　living　within　the　walled　compound　where　the　action　takes　place.Many　incidents　in　the　long　tale　have　been　the　subject　of　separate　plays　and　operas　ever　since　the　book　first　appeared.For　a　long　time　it　was　not　known　who　the　author　was　，but　it　is　now　credited　to　one　Chao　Hsien-chin，who　chose　to　hide　his　identity　in　anonymity　，supposedly　because　books　of　this　kind，written　as　they　were　in　the　vernacular，were　not　in　any　sense　considered　literature，since　they　did　not　flollow　the　stricttraditional　rules　as　to　language　and　form.Now，unfortunately，all　Chinese　novels　written　in　the　Uulgate　are　considered　literarture，whether　or　not　they　have　any　rightful　claim　to　such　distinction.Fifty　or　sixty　years　ago，young　people　were　not　allowed　to　read　novels　written　in　the　Uulgate　，because　they　were　considered　improper.Today　good　or　bad，proper　or　improper，everyone　reads　novels　writtcn　in　the　people’s　language　because　it　is　considered　the　modern　and　thcrefore　proper　thing　to　do.

Even　before　the　end　of　the　Ch’ing　Dynasty　in　1911　and　the　beginning　of　the　Republic　in　China，the　classical　style　of　novel　writing，like　so　many　otaditionally　accepted　things，became　the　target　of　criticism　and　re-evaluation.There　had　already　begun　a　general　questioning　of　all　the　old　values　which　had　held　sway　in　China　for　so　many　hundreds　of　years.A　number　of　things　were　responsible　for　the　changed　attitudes.Following　the　Boxer　Rebellion　of　1900，many　Chinesestudents　had　been　sent　abroad　for　study，and　had　come　back　to　China　with　all　sorts　of　“dangerous　thoughts”about　individual　freedom，the　rights　of　women，etc.，all　of　which　ran　counter　to　the　traditional　ones.Then　too，schools　of　a　modern　type　had　been　established　throughout　the　country，and　students　in　these　had　been　exposed　to　and　infiuenced　by　western　ideas　of　personal　freedom　and　democracy.The　old　Confucian　ideals　were　being　subjected　to　critical　analysis　and，in　some　quarters，found　wanting　in　meeting　the　changcd　conditions　of　the　modern　world.A　group　of　western-educated　men，fired　with　ideas　of　individual　freedom　and　the　need　for　widespread　education，started，about　1917，what　has　come　to　be　known　as　the　Literary　Renaissance，which　was　a　movement　attempting，among　other　things，to　have　the　Pai-hua　or　vulgate，used　as　an　accepted　literary　medium，replacing　the　classical　language　of　the　literati　，which　up　to　then　bad　been　the　only　form　in　which“literature”　could　be　written　and　accepted.

Influence　of　the　West

It　is　not　strange，therefore，that　about　thirty　years　ago，novels　began　to　appcar　which　tried　to　follow　the　western　pattern.In　those　early　days　of　groping　for　a　new　and　suitable　literary　form，the　novel　differed　radically　both　as　to　form　and　content　from　the　stereotyped　and　devitalized　classical　model.First　of　all，there　was　no　attempt　in　the　new　type　to　uphold，by　implication　or　otherwise，the　Confucian　canon　governing　the　relations　of　the　individual　either　to　the　State　or　to　the　family；nor　to　retail　supernatural　happenings　of　the　kind　that　characterized　the　traditional　novel；　rather　is　there　an　attempt　to　get　away　from　what　has　been　called　the　“deadweight”of　Confucian　morality，and　to　write　of　the　pressing　social　and　even　political　problems　facing　the　country—problems　of　a　sort　with　which　the　older　type　had　nothing　whatsoever　to　do.Classical　fiction　dealt　very　often　with　ghosts，dragons，foxes　who　turned　into　people，and　other　highly　imaginative　and　miraculous　events—in　a　word，novels　with　no　social　significance　whatever.The　modern　Chinese　novel，on　the　other　hand，from　the　very　beginning，has　dealt　almost　exclusively　with　problems　that　people　are　meeting　in　their　every　daylives，and　the　conflicts　that　have　arisen，especially　in　the　control　of　the　family　over　the　individual，as　people　have　begun　to　turn　away　from　the　old　ideas　andto　adopt　different　ones.

The　Chinese　Literary　Renaissance

The　use　of　the　Pai-hua　as　a　means　of　literary　expression　was　given　great　impetus　through　the　Literary　Renaissance　which　was　started　and　carried　through　by　such　outstanding　figures　as　Hu　Shih，Ts’ai　Yuan-p’ei，Ch’en　Tu-hsiu　and　Ch’ien　Hsuan-t’ung，who　were　its　foremost　pro-ponents.From　the　very　beginning，this　movement　was　supported　by　almost　all　the　younger　writers，and　since　then　practically　all　creative　writing　in　China　has　been　done　in　the　Pai-hua　.Gradually，even　scientific　and　philosophical　works　have　been　written　or　translated　into　the　vernacular，and　today　all　text　books　are　written　in　the　spoken　language.This　is　really　a　genuine　revolution，since　even　less　than　fifty　years　ago，and　before　the　more　general　use　of　the　Pai-hua　，all　aspirants　to　literary　recognition　were　compelled　to　write　in　the　classical　language　exclusively.Even　before　the　fall　of　the　imperial　regime　in　China，however，writers　had　begun　to　use　colloquialisms　in　their　writing，in　order　to　give　it　a　little　more　vitality.

In　the　period　following　the　end　of　the　first　World　War，and　the　beginning　of　World　War　II，Chinese　writers　of　the　modern　school　began　to　introduce　into　their　stories　relative　clauses　and　modifying　adverbs，and　also　to　use　a　sort　of　Europeanized　grammar.They　hoped　by　this　means　to　acquire　a　certain　smoothness　in　writing，as　well　as　continuity　of　thought，Chinese　grammar，　judged　by　western　standards，is　very　simple，its　main　purpose　being　merely　to　convey　a　general　idea.In　the　ordinary　spoken　language　the　sentences　are　short　and　somewhat　choppy，and　such　things　as　relative　clauses　and　modifying　adverbs　are　practically　unknown.This　makes　it，of　course，simple　and　direct.The　use　of　modifying　phrases，etc，however，makes　it　possible　to　put　into　one　somewhat　long　sentence　what　formerly　it　had　taken　two　or　three　sentences　to　express，and　this　was　thought　desirable，since　it　made　for　a　smoother　and　more　uninterrupted　flow　of　thought.Still　another　development　in　modern　writing　that　came　between　the　turn　of　the　century　and　the　second　World　War　was　the　use　of　characters　that　conveyed　a　sharper　distinction　of　meaning；for　instance，the　simple　character“t’a”which　is　the　singular　form　of　the　third　person　pronoun，means　either　he，she　or　it，depending　on　the　context.Now，occasionally，along　side　the　character　“t’a”，a　radical　is　placed　which　conveys　the　gender.　This　and　other　changes　have　posed　something　of　a　problem　for　the　modern　writer　，which　will　be　discussed　later.

In　addition　to　these　changes　in　the　Chinese　language　itself，new　European　words　and　expressions　have　constantly　been　introduced　into　both　the　spoken　and　written　language，thus　making　better“word　pictures，”and　furnishing　an　exactness　and　precision　in　writing　not　heretofore　employed，The　traditional　literary　form　of　Wen-yan　was　entirely　too　limited　and　narrow　in　scope　to　convey　all　these　different　meanings，or　shades　of　meaning.and　it　was　felt　necessary，therefore，in　the　new　style　of　writing，to　introduce　such　changes　as　I　have　indicated，thus　changing　the　sentence　structure　somewhat　from　that　used　in　the　classical　form.

Influence　of　European　Writers

The　introduction　of　Europeanized　phrases，relative　clauses，modifying　adverbs，etc，has　also　helped　greatly　in　the　translation　of　foreign　works　into　the　Chinese　language.　European　writers　have　had　a　very　great　influence　on　the　present　generation　of　students　and　writers.This　is　true　both　as　to　form　and　content.It　is　especally　true　as　regards　the　Russian　writers　of　the　nineteenth　and　twentieth　centuries，notably　Tolstoy，Chekhov，Dostoievsky，Gorki，Turgenev，and　others；but　perhaps　Tolstoy　has　had　more　influence　than　any　other　single　writer.From　the　very　beginning　of　the　Literary　Renaissance，modern　Chinese　novel　writing　has　shown　the　effect　of　the　impact　of　the　entire　western　literature　of　revolt，especially　that　exemplified　by　the　Russian　School.The　result　has　been　a　rather　serious　attirude　on　the　part　of　modern　writers　toward　the　subject　matter　of　their　work.For　example，while　they　may　not　agree　with　the　philosophical　or　social　ideals　of　Tolstoy　or　the　others　who　have　written　so　vividly　and　so　passionately　of　the　hardships　and　injustices　suffered　by　the　common　people，nevertheless　the　sheer　greatness　of　Tolstoy　in　particular　and　the　burning　sincerity　with　which　he　writes　have　inspired　many　Chinese　writers　of　the　new　school，who　have　tried　to　brig　as　much　sincerity　of　purpose　as　possible　into　their　writing.This　is　one　reason　why，for　the　last　thirty　years，Chinese　writers　have　not　produced　a　single　detective　story.And　we　must　thank　the　Russian　influence　for　that.

One　might　think　that　with　all　the　translations　of　modern　novels　and　short　stories，there　would　have　been　some　attempt　to　translate　the　modern，western　detective　story　into　Chinese，With　the　exception　of　the　stories　of　Sherlock　Holmes，however，no　such　translations　have　been　made，although　this　would　be　a　very　lucrative　field　for　some　enterprising　writer　of　publisher.Still，no　such　translations　havebeen　made.Of　course，detective　fiction　is　not　considered　serious　writing　and　for　this　reason，if　for　no　other　，Chinese　writers　have　not　indulged　in　it.The　Chinese　reading　public　has　not　even　heard　of　the　existence　of　Edgar　Wallace　or　Dorothy　Sayers，or　of　the　widely　read“mystery”stories　of　Ellery　Queen.The　works　of　Edgar　Allen　Poe，however，have　been　widely　read　in　translation，although　his　stories　cannot　strictly　be　called　detective　fiction.

Attitude　of　Modern　Chinese　Writers

The　thoughtful　Chinese　writer　of　today　does　not　think　of　his　work　as　something　which　will　divert　or　amuse　people；　rather　does　he　consider　is　as　a　means　of　arousing　them　to　think　seriously　about　life　in　general　and　the　problems　that　have　arisen　in　the　modern　world，more　especially　in　his　own　country，or　village，or　even　in　his　own　family，and　his　own　relations　to　them.This　also　is　somehing　quite　new　in　the　field　of　literature　in　China.

During　the　period，roughly，from　the　beginning　of　the　Literary　Renaissance　up　to　the　beginning　of　the　second　World　War，the　output　of　Chinese　writers　was　somewhat　meager，although　during　this　period　there　have　been　some　very　good　novels　and　a　number　of　very　good　short　stories　produced.They　have　had　wide　circulation　and　are　well　known　to　the　reading　public.Perhaps　the　most　outstanding　figure　of　this　period　is　Lu　Hsun，sometimes　called　Lusin，a　native　of　the　Province　of　Chekiang，who　died　about　nine　years　ago.In　a　volume　of　contemporary　short　stories　translated　into　English　by　Professor　C.C.Wang，of　Columbia　University，and　published　in　1945　by　the　Columbia　University　Press，several　of　Lu　Hsun’s　stories　are　included.They　are　about　the　common　people　of　China　and　rate　high　in　the　opinion　of　all　modern　Chinese　writers；in　fact，his　place　in　modern　Chinese　literature　is　similar　to　that　of　Gorki’s　in　Russian　literature.In　addition　to　his　short　stories，he　was　an　essayist　of　wide　repute.His　short　essays　appeared　for　years　in　the　daily　press　and　attacked　all　kinds　of　outworn　social　and　other　codes，corruption　in　official　circles，social　and　aconomic　injustices；in　fact　all　things　that　needed　to　be　changed　if　China　were　to　take　her　place　alongside　other　enlightened　nations.Lu　Hsun　is　not　well　known　to　occidental　readers　because　he　wrote　no　long　novels.　But　he　was　a　scholar，philosopher，and　a　master　of　the　writing　technique.　His　Short　History　of　the　Chinese　Novel　is　standard　in　its　field.

Another　well　known　Chinese　writer　of　this　period　is　Shen　Yen-ping，better　known　under　his　pen　name　of　Mao　Tun.His　reputation　as　a　writer　of　both　novels　and　short　stories　is　well　established，and　both　have　been　translated　into　English　.His　best　known　novels　are　Eclipse　，published　in　1927，which　won　him　immediate　fame；The　Rainbow　（1929）and　Twilight　（1933）.His　novels　have　attempted　to　bring　burning　social　issues　to　the　attention　of　the　people.Eclipse，for　example，is　concemed　with　the　cvcnts　of　the　Nationalist　Revolution　of　1926-27，and　the　role　the　students　of　China　played　in　it；The　Rainbow　tells　the　story　of　a　young　woman　revolutionary　of　this　same　period；and　Twilight　deals　with　big　business，Shanghai　variety.

One　of　the　better　known　living　poets　and　writers　of　today　is　Kuo　Mo-jo，who　is　also　well　known　for　his　plays，and　who　is　an　archeologist　of　world　renown.In　the　opinion　of　the　writer　he　is，after　Lu　Hsun，The　greatest　of　modem　Chinese　literary　figures.　Becoming　deaf　after　having　been　traincd　in　the　medical　profession，he　was　forced　to　give　up　the　idea　of　being　a　doctor，and　it　was　then　that　he　took　to　his　literary　work　and　to　his　translations.He　has　translated　the　works　of　Goethe　into　Chinese，and　also　Tolstoy’　s　War　and　Peace.

There　are,of　course，other　well　known　and　widely　read　modern　writers，but　spacedoes　not　permit　consideration　of　their　writing　here.Their　writing　deals，almost　universally，with　the　lives　of　the　people　of　China　today，but　predominantly　the　middle，lower　middle　and　depressed　classes.　A　great　deal　of　it　is　fiercely　proletarian　in　sympathy.

Before　the　second　World　War　some　writers　had　tried　their　hands　at　the　western　type　of　psychological　novel，and　there　have　been　a　few　interesting　and　well　done　novels　of　this　kind.During　the　war　itself，however，nothing　along　this　line　of　writing　was　done，since　all　efforts　were　directed　to　the　production　of　special　plays，short　stories，marching　songs，etc.，the　purpose　of　which　was　to　arouse　the　patriotism　of　the　people　and　get　them　to　support　the　war.While　the　genuine　psychological　novel　as　it　is　known　in　the　West　has　not　had　much　development　in　China，nevertheless　in　a　sense，all　modern　novels　are　more　or　less　psychological　in　character，since　they　deal，on　the　whole，with　problems　that　have　arisen　in　modern　China，and　the　effect　which　the　changed　times　and　new　ideas　have　had　on　various　individuals　and　groups.The　older，classical　type　of　novel，as　has　already　been　pointed　out，contained　simply　a　recital　of　events，in　which　very　often　the　supernatural　had　a　prominent　place.The　modern　novel，on　the　other　hand，deals　with　changes　that　have　already　taken　place　in　the　social，political　and　economic　structure　of　the　life　of　the　country，and　the　confusion　and　often　bewilderment　they　have　ensued　as　people　have　had　to　adjust　their　lives　to　them.In　this　connection，it　is　pertinent　to　note　that　within　the　last　fifteen　or　twenty　years，Chinese　doctors　trained　in　the　field　of　modern　psychiatry　have　been　confronted　with　types　of　behavior—problems　not　heretofore　encountered　in　China—problems　that　have　caused　such　profound　emotional　reactions　as　to　render　the　individual　genuinely　ill.

The　Novel　and　World　War　II

During　and　since　World　War　II，there　has　been　a　tendency　to　drop　the　use　of　westernized　grammatical　structure　which　characterized　writing　at　the　turn　of　the　century　and　later，and　to　use　the　laguage　of　the　common　people　exactly　as　it　is　spoken.While　the　war　was　raging，writers　from　all　parts　of　China，torn　from　their　native　provinces，came　into　much　closer　contact　with　the　common　people，not　only　from　their　own　districts，but　with　those　who，uprooted　like　themselves　from　their　home　soi　l，found　themselves　far　from　home.The　mass　migrations，the　flight　of　millions　to　escape　from　the　onrushing　Japanese　invader　to　a　safer　place　into　the　Interior，brought　people　together　in　a　way　that　could　have　been　accomplished　by　no　other　means.So　the　writers，many　of　whom　did　not　know　very　much　about　the　masses　of　the　common　people，nor　have　great　interest　in　them，began　to　learn　something　of　the　integrity，the　industriousness，the　patience，kindness　and　sterling　qualities　of　their　own　countrymen—the　ones　who　bore　the　brunt　of　the　war，and　in　the　end　helped　win　it.During　this　time　they　talked　with　all　sorts　and　conditions　of　people；carpenters，day　laborers，rickshaw　boys，farmers，peddlers—men　in　all　walks　of　life，and　they　learned　much　from　them.Some　of　the　salty　expressions　and　phrases　used　by　these　men　and　women　from　all　over　China　and　from　all　ranks　of　society　found　their　way　into　the　work　of　the　writers.And　because，during　the　war，the　writers　set　themselves　the　task　of　arousing　the　patriotic　feelings　of　the　people　so　that　they　would　continue　to　support　the　war　effort，they　began　to　write　things　that　appealed　to　them　and　to　the　common　soldier　in　the　ranks.A　great　deal　of　research　was　done　in　folk　songs　and　marching　songs，local　folk　lore，etc.，and　the　result　of　all　this　was　used　in　new　songs，plays　and　other　material　that　would　catch　and　hold　the　interest　of　the　people　and　bolster　their　morale.In　writing　special　songs　and　dramatic　sketches　for　the　people，all　talk　of　democracy　was　avoided，but　every　effort　was　made　to　help　the　people　understand　the　significance　of　what　was　happening　to　China　because　of　the　Japanese　invasion　and　the　necessity　for　them　to　fight　the　invader　until　he　was　driven　form　Chinese　soil.There　was　a　great　deal　of　this　sort　of　activity　at　the　beginning　of　the　war，but　towards　the　and　there　was　much　less.The　theatre　groups　which　thewriters　had　organized　and　which　went　all　over　China　during　the　first　years　of　the　war　also　curtailed　their　activities　as　the　war　went　on，since　such　activities　were　not　encouraged　by　the　govemment.

Back　to　The　People’s　Language

At　the　beginning　of　the　war　there　were　many　writers　who　went　directly　to　the　soldiers　and　visited　them　in　their　barracks　or　trenches，but　this　was　also　discouraged　by　the　government，and　so　gradually　all　the　writers　went　back　to　the　big　cities.This　going　to　the　people，of　course，was　an　excellent　way　to　get　source　material　for　their　writing.It　has　enriched　the　language　considerably，and　has　made　it　possible　more　adequately　to　express　the　inmost　thoughts，emotions，aspirations，hopes　and　fears　of　the　great　mass　of　the　common　people　of　China　which　heretofore，unfortunately，had　not　been　considered　a　worthy　subject　of　literature.Even　the　writers　from　the　South　who　knew　Mandarin，the　offcial　spoken　language　of　the　country，found，when　they　came　to　write　it，that　it　was　too　rigid　and　lacking　in　flexibility　to　convey　all　they　wanted　to　say.They　found　their　writing　lifeless　and　sterile　and　lacking　in　vitality　until　they　began　to　introduce　into　it　expressions　used　by　the　people　from　all　parts　of　China，or　as　they　used　bits　of　conversation　or　incidents　told　them　by　the　different　classes　of　people　with　whom　they　had　come　into　contact.The　introduction　of　local　idioms　and　colloquial　expressions，therefore，has　tended　to　take　literature，during　and　since　the　war，out　of　the　clouds　and　bring　it　down　to　earth.The　use　of　western-style　grammatical　structures　and　relative　clauses　which　characterized　writing　at　the　beginning　of　the　century　and　for　sometime　after，is　gradually　being　dropped，and　writers　today，in　their　short　stories，novels　and　plays，are　more　and　more　using　the　simple，direct　language　of　the　people.In　other　words，they　are　striving　for　a　language　that　is　“pure”　Chinese，uninfluenced　either　by　foreign　grammatical　construction，foreing　words，or　western　writing　technique　in　general.They　found　this　use　of　the　simple，direct　language　of　the　people　very　effective　during　the　war　when　they　were　striving　to　appeal　to　the　patriotism　of　the　people　and　to　arouse　their　enthusiasm　for　the　war　against　Japan.They　found　also　that　the　ordinary　man　on　the　street　or　on　the　farm　did　not　understand　the　relative　clauses　and　other　“western”　devices　that　had　crept　into　the　language　of　modern　writers；in　fact　this　was　just　as　unintelligible　to　them　as　the　language　of　the　Literati，and　so　the　writers　found　that　if　they　wanted　to　make　an　impression　on　the　people　they　would　have　to　use　a　language　that　did　not　confuse　them.So　the　movement　came　about　to　discard　the　more　complex　grammatical　constructions　and　to　create　a　genuine　literature　in　the　language　of　the　common　people.How　far　this　movement　will　go，it　is　impossible　to　predict　at　the　moment，but　there　seems　no　doubt　whatever　that　the　post　war　years　in　China　will　see　a　tremendous　output　of　writing　in　all　fields，and　that　the　literature　produced　will　be　of　the　serious　type　and　will　deal　with　the　struggles，conflicts，and　profound　changes　in　the　ordinary　life　of　the　common　people　as　they　return　to　their　farms　and　villages　and　take　up　their　lives　again　after　the　long　and　bitter　years　of　China’s　fight　for　survival.